Mexican Drug Cartel (Many vs Few) Essay Example

Mexican Drug Cartel (Many vs Few) Essay Name Instructor Course Date We will write a custom essay sample on Mexican Drug Cartel (Many vs Few) specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Mexican Drug Cartel (Many vs Few) specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Mexican Drug Cartel (Many vs Few) specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Mexican Drug Cartel The drugs problem is one of the primary issues facing the Mexican society in its political, economic, and cultural aspects. Mexico holds a tight grip on the $400 billion global illicit drug trade, with the country suffering economic losses of about $4.3 billion annually (Rios 1-2). At the center of this drug problem are the Mexican drug cartels, controlling the trade at the national and international levels. The debilitating effects of the illicit drug trade on Mexico indicate the need for discussions on the issue. The present study compares the nature of Mexican drug cartels to the meaning of cartel, before analyzing the rise of Mexican drug cartels and associated spikes in homicide rates. A discussion of whether it is better to have a few large cartels than several dozen smaller cartels then concludes the study. Cartel Definition: Comparison to Mexican Drug Cartels The business conceptualization of the term â€Å"cartel† is that it is a formal agreement between independent firms that are in the same or very similar areas of economic activity, undertaking a deliberate agreement among themselves to stifle competition (McGowan 30). In a cartel, the firms prefer collaboration to competition with one another. The items of the agreement include fixing of prices, determination of total industry output, and allocation of customers and market shares. Cartels usually emerge in oligopolistic economic sectors, where few manufacturers produce similar products and have to incur heavy costs to differentiate their products, which lead to reduced profit margins. Brux (255) cites examples of cartels as including OPEC and De Beers, operating in the oil and diamonds industry, respectively. Entry into the collusive agreement that typifies cartels represents a shift to a monopolistic market, which hinders competition, prevents new entrants, and may harm the c ustomer through changes in prices, supply, and quality. As a result, cartels have taken a negative overtone, attracting the interest of competition authorities. The Mexican drug cartels share a number of similarities and differences with the aforementioned definition of cartels. Most of the cartels began as federations of traffickers who consolidated their efforts to quash rivals and control drug trade in their territories (International Crisis Group 7). This arrival at an agreement to increase market power and turf allocation is similar to the concept of a cartel. However, other aspects of the Mexican drug cartels contradict the described definition. For instance, intra-cartel conflicts and warfare indicate that the agreement among the trafficker groups is not operational. The cartels are also unable to set prices, besides engaging in varied criminal activities including kidnapping, human smuggling, extortion, piracy, car robbery, oil theft, and weapons trafficking (8). These activities defy the concept of similar economic activity and indicate that the so-called Mexican drug cartels are more of transnational criminal organizations than tra ditional trade cartels. The consolidation of efforts and criminal inclinations makes the Mexican groups more of criminal cartels that do not obey all the expected aspects of normal business cartels. The Rise of Mexican Cartels: Link to Increase in Homicides in Mexico The drug trade industry in Mexico is about a century old, but has experienced its most significant growth within the last quarter of a century. Dean et al. (9) traces the spike in the role of Mexico in the international illicit drug trade to events in the 1980s. At the time, Colombia was the major player in the global drug trafficking trade. However, intense enforcement by the U.S. Coast Guard blocked the main route of transporting cocaine to the USA, which was through Florida using aircraft. The Colombian drug traders sought alternative routes, establishing alliances with Mexican traffickers. This is because Mexico emerged as the most appropriate point of entry for the Colombian drug trading organizations, offering a conduit to Texas and Southern California. The alliances involved payments made in kind, which gave the Mexican trafficking groups control of their own stock (Beittel 8). With their own stock, Mexican drug trading organizations gradually took over the drug trafficking bu siness, evolving from being mere couriers subcontracted by the Colombians to wholesalers who could source for their own stock by the 1990s. The political landscape of Mexico also allowed the rise of drug trade organizations in Mexico. During the 71-year reign of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) that ended in 2,000, Mexico was under authoritarian, one-party rule. The PRI government entrenched drug trade in Mexico because the authorities tolerated and even protected drug production and trafficking in some regions. Dean et al. (8) argues that there was a working relationship between the PRI and drug trading organizations. The existing drug trading organizations then sought to collaborate in various alliances that would allow more control and territorial splits, leading to the generation of various cartels. Increased competition for control of the drug trade was the reason behind the intensification of existing cartels and springing up of new ones. The International Crisis Group (7) notes that the cash streaming into the Mexican narcotics business has led to the rapid rise in power of cartels in the 1990s and the 21st century. When the one party rule under PRI ended, denying existing cartels of the stability they once enjoyed, the cartels splintered even further. As a result, the last two decades have seen changes in the landscape of Mexican drug cartels, from a few large ones in the 1990s to involving many more players besides the large organizations. Part of the reason for splinters in drug cartels has been the crackdown by the government within the last decade, where the death of leaders has left ca rtels in disarray and confusion. Dean et al. (9) describes the changes in number and size of the drug cartels in Mexico over time. Mexico’s seven main drug cartels by 2006 were Sinaloa, Gulf, Tijuana/AFO, Juarez/CFO, Beltran Leyva, Los Zetas, and La Familia Michoacana (renamed Knights Templar). However, a closer analysis reveals that the Juarez cartel was once part of the Sinaloa group while Los Zetas is the formerly military wing of the Gulf cartel. The war on drug cartels has led to deaths such as those of the leaders of the Beltran Leyva cartel. As a result, neighboring groups have tried to move in into the territories left behind. Instances of confusion have led to the emergence of new cartels from realignments within existing trade groups and leaders, leading to cartels such as La Familia Michoacana. Rise in Cartel Power and Link to Homicides Today, the seven main cartels have fragmented into 9-20 with many reconfigurations continuing to unfold. The Mexican drug cartel landscape reveals two major groups, Sinaloa and Los Zetas, with the rest of the cartels and subsidiaries aligning between the two aforementioned cartels. The next in size and power after the two largest ones include Beltran Leyva, Knights Templar, and La Linea. The changes in configuration have acted alongside an increase in the stakes and government paramilitary efforts to disrupt the cartels in making the last decade witness a spike in homicides. In this case, the Mexican narcotics business boomed as Mexican drug cartels gained control of the global illicit drug trade industry, supplying up to 93% of all narcotics entering the USA (International Crisis Group 6). As the cartels started fighting for control in the 21st century, the money flowing into the industry enabled them to purchase weapons that are more powerful and pay specialist hit men. Within the same time, the Mexican government’s response to the drug problem has been through deployment of about 10,000 federal police officers and nearly 50,000 Mexican soldiers to fight the cartels (Dean et al. 10). The combination of these three factors has led to a spike in drug-related violence and homicides as captured in the following graphs. a b Figure 1: Estimates of drug-related violence for a) Baja California and b) Chihuahua states between 2000 and 2009, showing a spike in the violence in the latter part of the decade (Rios 8). The violence is either inter-cartel, entailing fights for control over territories and trafficking routes among various cartels, or intra-cartel, where violence erupts due to succession struggles (Gonzalez 72-73). There were an alarming 47,500 homicides between 2006 and 2011 related to Mexican drug cartels. In 2007 alone, there were 2,800 homicides, which more than doubled in 2008 and then increased by 40% in 2009. Between 2009 and 2010, drug cartel-related homicides increased by 60%, with 2011 recoding as much as 12,903 homicides by the third quarter of the year (Beittel 24-25). Figure 2: The drug cartel-related homicide trends between 2007 and 2011, showing an alarming spike arising from intra-cartel, inter-cartel, and government on cartel violence (Beittel 25). Few Large Cartels than Several Dozen Smaller Cartels According to Dean et al. (9), the government intervention on the Mexican drug cartel problem may follow two strategies that have different short-term and long-term implications. In the first approach, the government may target the largest drug alliances such as the Sinaloa and Gulf cartels. Disbanding the main drug cartels will result in their consumption by the smaller groups, none of which has the capacity to rise to the level of the destroyed cartels. This will lead to fragmentation of the large drug cartels, lessening the power of the groups taking part in drug trafficking. Alternatively, the government may target the smaller and weaker drug cartels, whose disbanding will free up territories for the largest drug cartels to occupy. The result will be two or three major drug cartels operational in Mexico. The two scenarios, few and powerful cartels, or many and weak cartels, have different implications on Mexico. As the evidence reviewed shows, the generation of numerous drug cartels has been accompanied by intensified violence and homicides. This is because destroying the large cartels creates situations for succession struggles, fallouts, and realignments. This observation explains the observed spike in violence after the fall of powerful cartels such as Beltran Leyva. Besides this immediate intensification in violence, the government will also have to face numerous and varied organizations that, albeit weak, will still pose a difficult challenge. On the other hand, targeting the smaller cartels does not create much room for intra-cartel and inter-cartel fighting. In this scenario, the short-term implications do not involve a spike in violence as would happen in the event of numerous small drug cartels. Further, the government is left with about two or three large cartels to fight. Although powerful, dealing with a few defined targets will prove easier than diffuse and diversified targets. As a result, a few large cartels are a better proposition for Mexico than several dozen smaller cartels, given the desirable decline in homicides and relative ease in addressing the problem when the government faces off with few, properly defined targets (Dean et al. 9). Governments in countries dealing with the problems of drugs and drug cartels continue facing great challenges in trying to eliminate the cartels. Some cartels are large and their presence is felt nationwide. In trying to eliminate the cartels, the authorities use different strategies. Some believe that eliminating the drug lord or king is an effective way since it is a sure way of scattering the cartel and disrupting its operations. While this may seem initially successful, it has often resulted to greater challenges for the authorities. Once the large cartel breaks up, the members form smaller groups within their regions of operation. These smaller groups are often worse compared to the larger ones. The smaller gangs are forced to carry out a higher number of violence and crimes, given that crime is their main form of income. The smaller cartels become more dangerous and violent, and ultimately end up committing more homicides. They fight amongst themselves and against other smaller cartels as they seek to control the trade. Some of them end up engaging in other criminal activities such as kidnappings and theft, in their quest to get more money. The smaller cartels end up producing higher homicide rates compared to the few large cartels. Historical Analysis of the Mexican Cartels The country’s administration has had an impact in determining the operation of the cartels. Some leaders have taken the initiative of fighting the drug cartels and of ending the drug menace in the country. There were fewer homicide rates experienced in the 1990s, under the leadership of President Ernesto Zedillo, between 1994 and 2000. The number of homicides reduced from 15,839 in 1994 to 10,737 in the year 2000. The next president Vicente Fox continued with this trend, and there was a general decline of homicide rates in his country between the year 2000 and 2006. The homicide rates in the year 2004 fell to 9,329. However, this decline was temporary as the homicide rates began increasing and they were 10,452 in 2006. The government took measures to reduce the drug cartels and to control the number of homicides at the time, and this reduced the number of homicides to 8,867 in the year 2007. Since then, the homicide rates have continued to increase and the number of homicides in the year 2011 was 27,213, a 24% annual increase (Molzahn Ferreira and Shirk 12-13). The high number of homicides in the country has surprised many people, especially as the government seems to have become more vocal in its declaration to fight the drug cartels in the country. The difference in the homicide rates experienced in the country can be attributed to the change in the cartel structure and composition, which came about because of the government’s efforts in fighting the cartels. When the government began its efforts of fighting the cartels in 1990s, it dealt with few cartels, albeit larger ones. The government’s efforts led to changes in structure and size of the cartels. There was internal conflict within the larger cartels, because the members could not agree on their leadership, and this led to the division of the larger cartels. The splinter groups did not have as much power or resources as the bigger cartels did. In addition, the smaller cartels continued disagreeing with each other as they sought control of different territories, and as t hey each sided with other cartel groups for protection purposes. These factors contributed to increased violence between the cartels. The smaller cartels used violence to get the resources they needed, and they fought with each other for territories. Therefore, instead of the government solving the problem of violence and increased homicide rates that were perpetrated by the larger cartels, it managed to increase the rates of violence in the country. The authorities have blamed drug trafficking and organized crime for the increased homicide rates in recent years. A high number of intentional homicides had characteristics such as the use of torture and dismemberment and the use of high-caliber automatic weapons, which are typical of organized crime groups. In addition, the crime groups used explicit messages (Molzahn Ferreira and Shirk 1). The number of kidnappings increased from 733 in 2006 to 1,344 in 2011, and many more kidnappings are usually not detected or reported (International Crisis Group 9). Oil theft has increased over the past few years. There has been an increase in theft of crude oil and refined oil. In 2012, petrol station owners reported that they were forced to buy oil from gangsters (International Crisis Group 9). Extortion is one of the common practices that have gradually evolved into the main form of crime for most cartels in Mexico. They demand for money from different kinds of businesses, and they have shot at many business people who have refused to pay what they ask for, killing many people and destroying property in the process (International Crisis Group 10). Another notable change experienced in recent homicide rates includes the shift in the distribution of the violence. Previously, many drug cartels concentrated their efforts in Mexico, and very few of them dared to venture beyond that. However, officials in the US have reported an increase in the number of Mexican drug cartels operating in the country. The cartels are no longer concentrated only in California and Texas as was previously the case, but they are now in the suburbs in different areas such as Chicago, and in other areas such as the rural areas of North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Minnesota. In Mexico, cities that had previously low homicide rates began realizing an increase in homicides. For instance, in 2009, Monterrey recorded 22 homicides but this number increased to 179 the following year, and it reported a dramatic increase in homicide numbers, in 2011, recording 700 homicides that year. The homicide rates in Nuevo Laredo increased from 123 in 2011 to 288 in 2012. The city of Torreon also recorded an increase in homicide rates, reporting 462 homicides in 2012 up from 316 homicides reported in 2010 (Molzahn Ferreira and Shirk 27). The increased penetration of the drug cartels is a worrying problem because it shows the increased ability and capacity of the cartels. The increase in the homicide rates in 2008 is significant. The then new government of President Felipe Calderon in 2007 had taken measures to end drug cartels by targeting the drug lords. This saw a decline homicide rates in 2007. The fight against the cartels led to the capture or killing of twenty-five drug cartel bosses that were part of the most wanted list by the government. However, the measures were only temporary, and they produced greater negative consequences that anyone had imagined then as they resulted to a greater increase in homicide rates. This reflects the ineffectiveness of the strategy employed by the government. Killing the drug lords is only a temporary measure, and it only produces results immediately the drug lord dies or is apprehended because the cartels are disorganized at the time. However, the once large cartel of the drug lord segments into different groups and they continue with the violence and the murders. The confusion and destabilized nature of the larger cartels contributed towards increased rivalry between different gangs as well as between cartels and law enforcement officers, and it has led to turf wars between the different cartels. The killing or capture of the drug lords means that their troops do not have any other means of getting funds. This makes them turn to other means of sourcing funds, hence the increase in extortion rates, oil theft, and kidnappings. They have increased the rate of violence and reports of beheadings, killing of innocent bystanders, assassination of politicians and journalists and other people affiliated to them, mass murders, and public hanging of corpses have become common (Biettel 1). The use of violence by the cartels is deliberate, and they use to discipline the employees in the cartels, enforce their drug transactions, as a barrier to competitors and to coerce people. They also use violence when their bribery efforts fail to persuade the law enfo rcers towards letting them continue running their operations (Biettel 6-7). Structure of Mexican Cartels The structure and organization of the different cartels differ considerably. The cartels differ in size, internal organization, geographical reach, and power. The cartels change as time progresses depending on the competition they face and violence in the country. They also change because of the efforts of the security forces in the country. The cartels react fast, and they are quick to retaliate against the government. They are highly mobile, and they move their activities to different strategies and regions (Weintraub and Wood 10). Each cartel has a territory where it operates. There is increased tension and conflict when the cartels overlap each other’s territory, and this leads to turf wars among the cartels. This is because the cartels have to compete for the limited resources. The larger the cartels are the more powerful they are, and the more they seek to expand their territories. The cartels formed from the drug trafficking organization of 1980s and Miguel Felix Gallardo was responsible for the formation of many of the cartels. Gallardo founded the Guadalajara cartel and was involved in drug trafficking. His main control was in the Mexico-US border. He gave families their own territories to manage, and these families managed to increase their drug production as well as consolidate their territories. Many of the current drug cartels in the country are led by the third generation of these families. There are eight major operating drug cartels in the country, and they include Los Zetas, Gulf cartel, B eltran Leyva, La Familia, Juarez cartel, Sinaloa, Tijuana, and Los Negros cartel (Ai Camp 11). Although many of them have the leadership of individual families, they are often reorganizing, forming alliances and breaking them and fighting each other as they seek more control of the drugs in different regions. The cartels form alliances with each other, as a way of gaining more power and protecting themselves from each other (Ai Camp 12). Some cartels concentrate on trafficking of illicit drugs, and others are involved in other activities. Cartels may spread their operations to different areas of the country, but they have a specific region where they are concentrated. La Familia is concentrated on the west coast of the country, and some its main practices are extortions and kidnappings. The La Familia Cartel recently entered an alliance with the Gulf cartel making the rivalry between this alliance and the Beltran Leyva and the Los Zetas take on new significance in Mexico. This alliance led to turf wars between the gulf cartel and the Los Zetas. The Zetas have grown at a high proportion and they consist of former soldiers, erstwhile police, and gang members. It supports a cellular system, which enables members of the unit to rise in the ranks more quickly and gain more prominence and contr ol. The zetas have conducted most of the violence in Mexico including the murder of 72 migrants and dumping hundreds of bodies in mass graves (International Crisis Group 12). The Gulf cartel is based along the Texas border in the northeast corner. This cartel controls a large part of the country’s natural resources, political figures and financial transactions. The Beltran Leyva cartel had initially formed an alliance with Los Zetas. The security forces killed some leaders in Beltran Leyva, and this led to the weakening of the cartel. The Sinaloa cartel is also referred to as the pacific drug trafficking organization. It is in constant turf wars with different cartels including the Juarez cartel for control of the central and northwestern territories. It is also in constant turf wars with the gulf cartel over territory control in different regions of the country. The Tijuana cartel controls some routes in the Pacific Northwest. The area of concentration has led to constant conflicts and turf wars with the Sinaloa Cartel, which also controls a big part of the pacific region. The cartels change and restructure often for different reasons. Some of the m such as the Los Negroes and the los zetas were part of the gulf cartel, but they ventured out on their own. Others restructure because of the government’s efforts to end the presence of the larger control by weakening them. This has led to the decline in power of cartels such as the Tijuana cartel that have lost their top leadership (Ai Camp 12). The cartels begin by controlling their local communities. Gangs exist as insurgencies in failed communities or in selected neighborhoods. They dominate the political, economic, and social life of these regions. They collect taxes from the businesses operating in the regions. The gangs use different strategies to consolidate their presence in the region, such as bribing the local officials and the law enforcers of the particular region, attacking the police, and other acts of intimidation. They create a perception of the protection for the community. The goal of the cartels at this stage is to get a foundation to venture into other areas and expand their territories. As they seek to expand beyond their neighborhoods, the cartels battle for the state. They battle with other cartels as they seek to replace each other in their areas of dominance (Sullivan 17). Most of the turf wars between the different cartels begin because of the need to have more territorial control, especially after the larger cartels breakup and restructure for different reasons. The shift in the geographical trend of the violence realized reflects the nature of the battles between the different cartel groups. The Tijuana cartel faced competition from an affiliate of the Sinaloa cartel in northwestern Mexico, and this led to battles between the two groups, and in the process increased the homicide rates. The gulf cartel and the zetas battled in northeastern Mexico increasing the homicide rates in that region. The creation of splinter groups in the Beltran Leyva cartels and La Familia led to an increase in violence in central Mexico and a consequent increase in the homicide rates there (Molzahn Ferreira and Shirk 27). The cartel battles involve the public, the police, and the military (Sullivan 17). Many of the smaller groups are splinter groups from the more established groups. The larger groups have fragmented to as many as twenty different organizations. This has increased the number of small cartels, and the number of cartels in the region now falls between sixty to eighty cartels (Molzahn Ferreira and Shirk 10). With such a high number, it becomes increasingly hard for the government to fight the groups. Effectively dealing with several cartels would require the deployment of nationwide resources that is virtually impossible, as the Mexican Government cannot afford to fund the initiative. Nevertheless, it is comparatively simple for the state to eliminate the large cartels, as they are confined to a small area and dense in definite regions. The division of these cartels also generates further friction as the smaller factions fight for limited resources. This raises the level of disagreements and hostility between the cartels. Structural and operational differences among Mexican Cartels Smaller cartels wield little or no power to fight back against the government and to negotiate in corrupt deals at the national level. Nevertheless, they are highly influential in their local districts where their control and power is optimum. They are able to coerce the residents and business establishments operating in the districts under their jurisdiction. In most instances, the municipal authorities in the districts are members of the same cartel, and this provides the gangs with authority and leeway to coerce and terrorize the residents. Smaller cartels also have narrower networks and lesser financial ability when compared to large cartels. Consequently, they regularly engage in other criminal activities such as extortion and burglary but they are also known for kidnappings that provide them with income collected through ransom money. Larger cartels are more organized exhibiting a well-defined leadership structure. The bosses of these cartels possess a clear strategy concerning their narcotic and crime syndicates. Most of them have the dual objectives of increasing their areas of jurisdiction and maximizing their drug trade locally and internationally. For this reason, cartel leaders directly avoid any criminal activities other than drug trafficking, but constantly organize and fund efforts that seek to be in power and expansion of their areas of jurisdiction. A large number of violent acts take place when large cartels are interested in expanding into a different region or when one cartel marches into the territory of another cartel. Larger cartels possess the financial and military resources to enter in battle with the state law enforcers. However, most of them depend on bribing the corrupt government officials and they are able to continue with their activities without resulting to violence. On the other hand, recent reports show how smaller cartels constantly engage in battles with the authorities. They fight back every time the authorities take any measures to fight the cartels, such as killing of their leaders. Nowadays, the smaller cartels have become bolder, and they are now targeting politicians, the military, police officers, and other people in authority. Domestic conflicts happen mostly when cartels change their leadership because the former one was captured or killed by state law enforcers. Implications of US Interference in Mexican Cartels The Mexican government has cooperated with different stakeholders to assist in the fight against cartel activity and drug trade in Mexico. The state has focused most of its efforts in combating the drug cartels. Many people perceive drug cartels as the major cause of the troubles in Mexico. One of the governments’ efforts has been to seek assistance from the government of United States. The US has decided to help Mexico because the drug problem has become worse. Mexican drug cartels have found their way to the US and they have increased their trade there, The United States acknowledges its function in the Mexican drug trade and in the rise in the drug cartels for two reasons. First, the US is a ready market for most of the drugs that Mexico produces and secondly, most of the weapons used by the drug cartels in committing different acts of violence originate from the US. These two factors have contributed to the strengthening of the drug cartels in Mexico. . For a long time, the two countries have differed over whose responsibility it is to control the drug cartels. The US has constantly reiterated that Mexico is not doing enough to control the drug trade, and Mexico observes that the US is not able to control and prevent the trafficking of drugs across the US-Mexico border. However, both countries have realized the importance of cooperation when dealing with the problem, and they are no longer focused on who is to blame for the problem. The US faces a huge drug problem, and this continues to affect it economically and socially. It has to deal with many people who have become drug addicts and at the same time deal with many drug dealers in the country. This is because a large part of the drugs produced in Mexico reaches the United States. Drugs from Mexico have increased in the country, and this has necessitated the need for the US to cooperate with Mexico in fighting the drug cartels since this will eventually stop the trafficking of drugs in the country. The US has decided to help Mexico deal with the drug cartels because it has realized that it has helped in contributing to the increased violence and consequent homicides in Mexico. Many weapons that the drug cartels use are smuggled from the US to Mexico (Mercille 1639). The ease of availability of the weapons has strengthened the cartels, and it has made them more powerful, to the extent that they are able to fight with the government securities. The increase in the number of firearms in Mexico has increased their availability, and this has contributed to increased violence and homicide rates in the country. More than 80% of the firearms used by the drug cartels originate from the US (Mercille 1643). The NAFTA trade agreement permits free trade and passage of goods between the US and Mexico. Smugglers find it easy to transport the weapons across the border. The United States supports the agreement with the hope that it will promote Mexico’s economy and result in economic ref orms in Mexico. The US has, in the past, collaborated with the Mexican authorities to end the menace. For instance, it has provided troops, which have worked with the military in Mexico to fight the drug cartels. During the tenure of President George W. Bush, the US developed the Merida Initiative in 2007 to support the Mexican government’s efforts in fighting drug cartels. The US government pledged about $1.4billion in financial assistance to aid in eliminating the drug cartels. This Mexican government used the financial aid to instruct law enforcers and to acquire state-of-the-art military equipment such as fighter jets, surveillance equipment, and other combat materials (International Crisis Group 19) Analysts and scholars have had opposing views concerning United States’ support of the law enforcers and the government in battle against drug trade and cartels. This is because many corrupt officials work in the government and in law enforcement agencies. These fraudulent officials are accountable for committing human rights violations. Critics of United States’ efforts in Mexico argue that superior US authorities form part of the Mexican drug cartels as sponsors of the leaders who in turn perpetrate grave human rights violations. The US has deployed several security agencies in Mexico, including the Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), DEA, ATF, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and Criminal Intelligence Agency (CIA). The US interferes with Mexico’s efforts of fighting the drug trade and fighting the drug cartels when it participates in corrupt practices. Evidence points towards corrupt immigration US officials who receive bribes and permit the drug trade to continue and flourish (Mercille 1643). Such negative involvement of the US government has sustained the drug and cartel problem within Mexico. Conclusion Mexico faces a pertinent economic, political, and social problem due to drugs, being the source country for some of the most powerful drug cartels that control the global illicit drugs trade. Although Mexican drug cartels do not fit into the concept of a business cartel perfectly, the consolidation of efforts to control territories and trafficking routes and fend off competition makes them criminal cartels. The landscape for Mexican drug cartels has changed over time in its composition, with the players realigning to form different numbers and sizes of cartels. Under the PRI one party rule, a few stable cartels remained powerful and controlled the trade. However, the 21st century has seen fragmentation into numerous cartels of different sizes and power, leading to intensified violence and spikes in homicide trends. Whereas smaller drug cartels have less power, they would exacerbate the homicide statistics and prove difficult to destroy. On the other hand, a few large cartels do not p ose as much risk of homicide spikes as their smaller counterparts, besides providing the government with defined targets. Ultimately, Mexico will fair better in the presence of two or three large cartels than several dozen smaller ones. Works Cited Ai Camp, Roderic. Mexico: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Print Beittel, June S. â€Å"Mexico’s Drug Trafficking Organizations: Source and Scope of the Violence.† Congressional Research Service, 2013. Web. 21 May 2013. Brux, Jacqueline M. Economic Issues Policy. Mason: Thomson Higher Education, 2008. Print. Carpenter, G. Ted. Undermining Mexico’s Dangerous Drug Cartels. Cato Institute. 2011. Web. May 24, 2013. Castillo, C. Juan, Daniel Mejia and Pascual, Restrepo. Illegal Drug Markets and Violence in Mexico: The Causes beyond Calderon. February 2013. Web. May 24, 2013 Dean, William et al. â€Å"The War on Mexican Cartels Options for U.S. and Mexican Policy-Makers.† Institute of Politics. Harvard University, 2012. Web. 21 May 2013. Gonzalez, Francisco E. â€Å"Mexico’s Drug Wars Get Brutal.† Current History: A Journal of Contemporary World Affairs 108.715 (2009): 72-76. Print. International Crisis Group. Pena Nieto’s Challenge: Criminal Cartels and Rule of Law in Mexico. Latin America Report, 2013. Web. 21 May 2013. Leiken, S. Robert. Mexico’s Drug War. Center for the National Interest. 2012. Web. May 24, 2013. McGowan, Lee. The Antitrust Revolution in Europe: Exploring the European Commission’s Cartel Policy. Northamptom: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2010. Print. Mercille, Julien. â€Å"Violent Narco-Cartels or US Hegemony? The Political Economy of the ‘War on Drugs’ in Mexico.† Third World Quarterly 32.9 (2011): 1637-1653 Molzahn, Cory, Octavio R. Ferreira and David A. Shirk. Drug Violence in Mexico: Data Analysis through 2012. Trans-Border Institute. 2013. Web. May 24, 2013. Rios, Viridiana. Understanding Mexico’s Drug War. Harvard University, 2011. Web. 21 May 2013. Sullivan, P. John. From Drug Wars to Criminal Insurgency: Mexican Cartels, Criminal Enclaves and Criminal Insurgency in Mexico and Central America, and their implications for Global Security. 2012. Web. May 24, 2013 Weintraub, Sidney and Duncan Wood. Cooperative Mexican-U.S. Antinarcotics Efforts. Center for Strategic International Studies. August 2010. Web. May 24, 2013

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The Amazing Sixth Sense essays With obvious gifts for directing children, creating atmospheric stories, and working honestly with deeply felt themes about the role of the dead in our lives, writer-director M. Night Shyamalan has followed up last year's touching Wide Awake with an even better film about a boy in the grip of loss and fear. Bruce Willis stars as child psychologist Malcolm Crowe, who is shot by a former patient who claims Crowe did nothing to alleviate his supernatural childhood terrors. Months later, Crowe is a changed man, isolated, remote from his wife (Olivia Williams), and quietly bent on helping another boy named Cole (Haley Joel Osment) who seems to be undergoing similar traumas to that of the gun-wielding assailant. For most of the film, young Cole seems like a sharp but terribly frightened child, his slight frame a natural metaphor for an inability to cope with some awful, invisible force in his life. He tells Crowe he has learned to deflect the worries of his single mother (Toni Collette) by drawing happy pictures instead of the horrifying ones he actually sees, and he has even made a deal with a local bully to pretend to be his friend. Crowe sees through Cole's facade, but it takes a long time before the boy reveals what's ailing him: he has an unwanted gift for seeing the dead, particularly those who have died violent, unjust deaths and seem to be seeking him out. While The Blair Witch Project is more primal in its suggestive scares, The Sixth Sense has an old-fashioned Gothic touch that Shyamalan uses with effective economy. For most of the film's running time, all the director really needs to do is frame certain shots with an airy anticipation and throw in a few evocative details: chilled breath, leaves blowing along a street, the hint of a spectre rushing past a doorframe. (Interestingly, Cole often seeks refuge in a makeshift tent in his room, which ends up amplifying his and our fear in much the same way as in Blair Witch.) By ...

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Performance of Unified Power Quality Conditioner

Performance of Unified Power Quality Conditioner ABSTRACT Power electronics is playing an important role in transmission and utilization of electrical power due to its capability of processing electric power in most efficient and cost-effective way. However, the nonlinear characteristics of power electronic devices give rise to two important limitations; they generate harmonics and draw lagging current from the utility. In recent years unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) is being used as a universal active power conditioning device to compensate both harmonics as well as reactive power. UPQC is an advanced version of unified power flow controller (UPFC). The performance of UPQC mainly depends upon how quickly and accurately compensation signals are derived. The UPQC mitigates harmonics and provides reactive power to the power systems network so as to improve the power factor close to unity. The UPQC is a combination of shunt active and series active power filters connected through a dc bus. The shunt active filter of UPQC acts as a current source for injecting compensating current through a shunt transformer, whereas, the series active filter acts as a voltage source for feeding compensating voltage through a series transformer. The aim of the dissertation work is to study the control strategies of UPQC based on PI controller and fuzzy logic controller in detail. In the case of PI controller, the dc link voltage is sensed at regular intervals and is compared with a reference value. The error signal thus derived is processed in a PI controller. A limit is put on the output of the controller to ensure that the shunt active power filter supplies active power of the load through the series active power filter. The fuzzy logic controller is basically nonlinear and adaptive in nature. This gives a robust performance in the cases where the effects of parameter variation of controller are also taken into consideration. It is a well established fact that the fuzzy logic controller yields results that are superior to those obtained as compare to those obtained through conventional controllers such as PI and PID because of the fact that it is based on linguistic variable set theory and does not require a mathematical model. Generally, the input variables are error and rate of change of error. If the error if coarse, the fuzzy controller provide coarse tuning to the output variable and if the error is fine it provides fine tuning of the output variable. The present thesis investigates PI controller and fuzzy logic controller as concerned to UPQC application for power quality improvement. The UPQC is studied and its advantages over conventional APFs and UPFC are discussed in detail. The relevant mathematical models and equations to explain the working of UPFC are derived for both the cases (PI controller and fuzzy logic controller).The relevant simulations are carried out using MATLAB/Simulink. The result obtained reveals that the fuzzy logic controller gives better dynamic performance than the PI controller for power quality improvement. Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Theory The electrical power system consisting of generation, transmission and distribution system are based on alternative voltage and currents. When linear load consisting of inductances, capacitances and resistances are connected to the power system the sine wave is preserved and the system components are said to be linear. Traditionally, linear loads consume major part of electrical power. However situation has changed now as more and more electrical power are being developed using power electronic devices due to their energy efficiency and control. Power electronic devices possess inherent non linear characteristics. The nonlinear characteristics of this devices results in two important limitations, drawing of large reactive volt-amperes and injection of harmonics into the utility. Large reactive volt-amperes drawn from the utility leads to increase voltage drops at various buses. The harmonics increase the losses in transformers, generators, motors, capacitors, conductors, etc. some of the control devices interfaced with the utility starts malfunctioning due to excessive harmonic currents. As the non linear load consists of the major portion of the total load for the last two three decades, reactive power compensation and harmonic filtering have received a great deal of attention. To restrict the consumers against excessive loading VARs and harmonics, stricter standards has been laid down by the utilities. Most popular among them is standard 519-1992 [1]. Static VAR compensators using thyristor switched capacitors (TSC) and thyristor control inductors (TCI) [2], [3] have been traditionally used for reactive power compensation. As the VAR generated in these schemes are directly proportional to the energy storage capability of capacitors and inductors, there is considerable increase in the size of these elements when the VARs to be compensated are large. Moreover TSC and TCI produce additional current harmonics. Therefore shunt passive filters require filtering them out. Active power filter (APF) using voltage or current source inverter can be used for reactive power compensation and harmonic filtering together. The major advantage of using voltage source or current source inverter is that the size of the energy storing element is drastically reduced as compare to TSC or TCI. The shunt APF is the most commonly used APF. The power circuit of shunt APF is shown in Fig. 1.1. In shunt APF, a reactive volt ampere calculation estimates the real component of the load current, Ipland then determines the resistive component of the load current by subtracting Ipl from IL(Iql= IL-Ipl). If nonlinearity present in the load current, it is present in Iql as well. Since compensation current Icomp is made to follow Iql, load harmonics also get eliminated. Apart from shunt APF various other APF topologies such as series active filter, hybrid series active filter and power line conditioner have been proposed in the literature. The series active filter as shown in Fig. 1.2 is connected in series with supply mains using a matching transformer. Its limitation is that the presence of active impedance in series with source produces voltage harmonics. IL = Ipl +Iql Source Icomp = Iql Source Source side Series transformer Load side Shunt transformer DC Link Capacitor Converter 1 converter 2 Using combine series APF and shunt APF unified power flow controller (UPFC) realized, which performs active power compensation, reactive power compensation and phase angle regulation. UPFC believed to be the most complete power conditioning device. But as the time changes, problem also changes. Now days electrical engineers facing problem regarding harmonic compensation, voltage sag and voltage flickering and UPFC is not able to overcome these problems. So a new concept based on UPFC derived called unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) as shown in Fig. 1.3, which performs all the basic functions of UPFC in addition it also compensate for current /voltage harmonics with constant voltage maintenance at load terminals. 1.2 Unified Power Quality Conditioner The UPQC is the most versatile and complex of the FACTS devices, combining the features of the STATCOM and the SSSC. The UPQC can provide simultaneous control of all basic power system parameters, transmission voltage harmonic compensation, impedance and phase angle. It is recognized as the most sophisticated power flow controller currently, and probably the most expensive one. The basic components of the UPQC are two voltage source inverters (VSIs) sharing a common dc storage capacitor, and connected to the power system through coupling transformers. One VSI is connected to in shunt to the transmission system via a shunt transformer, while the other one is connected in series through a series transformer. A basic UPQC functional scheme is shown in Fig.1.3. The series inverter is controlled to inject a symmetrical three phase voltage system of controllable magnitude and phase angle in series with the line to control active and reactive power flows on the transmission line. So, this i nverter will exchange active and reactive power with the line. The reactive power is electronically provided by the series inverter, and the active power is transmitted to the dc terminals. The shunt inverter is operated in such a way as to demand this dc terminal power (positive or negative) from the line keeping the voltage across the storage capacitor Vdc constant. So, the net real power absorbed from the line by the UPQC is equal only to the losses of the inverters and their transformers. The remaining capacity of the shunt inverter can be used to exchange reactive power with the line so to provide a voltage regulation at the connection point [8]-[11]. A conventional UPQC topology is comprised of the integration of two active power filters connected back to back to a common dc link bus. A simple block diagram of a typical UPQC is shown in Fig. 1.4. The first active filter connected in series through an injection transformer is commonly termed as series filters (SF). It acts as a controlled voltage generator. It has capability of voltage imbalance compensation, voltage regulation and harmonic compensation at the utility-consumer PCC. In addition to this, it provides harmonic isolation between a sub-transmission system and a distribution system. A UPQC consists of combination of shunt active filter and series active filter with a common dc link as shown in Fig. 1.4. The dc link capacitor allows the active power generated by the shunt active filter and active power drawn by the series filter to be same. Further dc link capacitor increases or decreases with respect to rated voltage which depends upon power generated and absorbed by both active filter can be choosen independently which gives flexibility to the power outlet. The performance of these active filters is based on three basic design criteria. They are: Design of power inverter (semiconductor switches, inductances, capacitors, dc voltage); PWM control method (hysteresis, triangular carrier, periodical sampling); Method used to obtain the current reference or the control strategy used to generate the reference template. Both series voltage control and shunt current control involve use of voltage source converters. Both these inverters each consisting of six IGBTs with anti parallel diode connected with each IGBT are operated in current control mode employing PWM control technique. Capacitor is used as an interface between the two back to back connected inverters and the voltage across it acts as the dc voltage source driving the inverters The two VSIs can work independently of each other by separating the dc side. So in that case, the shunt inverter is operating as a STATCOM that generates or absorbs reactive power to regulate the voltage magnitude at the connection point. Instead, the series inverter is operating as SSSC that generates or absorbs reactive power to regulate the current flow, and hence the power flows on the transmission line. The UPQC has many possible operating modes. In particular, the shunt inverter is operating in such a way to inject a controllable current into the transmission line. The shunt inverter can be controlled in two different modes: (1) VAR Control Mode:The reference input is an inductive or capacitive VAR request. The shunt inverter control translates the VAR reference into a corresponding shunt current request and adjusts gating of the inverter to establish the desired current. For this mode of control a feedback signal representing the dc bus voltage, Vdc, is also required. (2)Automatic Voltage Control Mode:The shunt inverter reactive current is automatically regulated to maintain the transmission line voltage at the point of connection to a reference value.. The series inverter controls the magnitude and angle of the voltage injected in series with the line to influence the power flow on the line. The actual value of the injected voltage can be obtained in several ways: Direct Voltage Injection Mode:The reference inputs are directly the magnitude and phase angle of the series voltage. Phase Angle Shifter Emulation mode: The reference input is phase displacement between the sending end voltage and the receiving end voltage. Line Impedance Emulation mode: The reference input is an impedance value to insert in series with the line impedance. Automatic Power Flow Control Mode:The reference inputs are values of active and reactive power to maintain the transmission line despite system changes. A UPQC control strategy should preferably have following attributes: (1) Shunt converter Reactive power control by shunt current injection Real power regulation through dc link capacitor DC capacitor voltage regulation Harmonic compensation (2) Series converter Real reactive power control by series voltage injection Voltage control Phase angle regulation Power factor correction 1.3 Characteristics of UPQC Basic characteristics of UPQC are same as UPFC but UPQC in addition, performs active filtering. The operation of UPQC from the standpoint of conventional power transmission based on reactive shunt compensation, series compensation and phase angle regulation, the UPQC fulfill these functions there by meet multiple control objectives by adding injected voltage with appropriate magnitude and phase angle to the terminal voltage. Using phasor representation, basic UPQC control functions explained: (1)Terminal Voltage Regulation The change in voltage shown in Fig.1.5 is injected in phase or anti phase. UPQC with its series voltage control detects and calculates the required terminal voltage vo to be injected in series with the line to compensate both the dip and swell in the supply voltage. vo + vo vo (2) Series Capacitive Compensation Here, vpq = vc where vcis injected capacitive voltage in quadrature to the line current functionally it is similar to series capacitive and inductive line compensation attained by SSSC as shown in Fig. 1.6. Series inverter in combination with the insertion transformer produces the series injected voltage as calculated to mitigate the effects of the fluctuations of supply voltage by drawing the required power from the dc link. vc vo vo + vc Fig. 1.6 Series capacitive compensation (3) Transmission Angle Regulation Here, vpq = v (ÃŽ ´) is injected with an angular relationship with respect to the voltage that achieves desire phase shift without any change in the magnitude as shown in Fig. 1.7. At any given transmission angle ÃŽ ´, the transmitted real power demand P and reactive power demand at transmission line sending end Qs and receiving end Qr can be freely controlled by UPQC Vc vd ÃŽ ´ vo vo + vÃŽ ´ (4) Multifunction Power Flow Control This property is executed by simultaneous terminal voltage regulation, series capacitive line compensation and phase shifting as shown in Fig.1.8. This function makes UPQC unique device that performs all power quality improvement functions. vc ΔvvÃŽ ´ vpq vo + ÃŽ ´v + vc + vÃŽ ´ (e) Active Filtering The compensating shunt currents generated contain harmonic content of the load current but with opposite polarity such that when they are injected at the point of common coupling the harmonic content of supply current is effectively reduced. As discussed earlier in this chapter. 1.4 Aim of Work This work deals with UPQC, which aims at the integration of series-active and shunt-active power filters. Fig. 1.3 shows the basic system configuration of such a UPQC. In this system, the power supply is assumed to be a three-phase, three-wire system. The two active power filters are composed of two 3-leg voltage source (VSI). The main purpose of the series-APF is harmonic isolation between a sub transmission system and a distribution system. In addition, the series-APF has the capability of voltage imbalance compensation as well as voltage regulation and harmonic compensation at the utility-consumer point of common coupling (PCC). Atthe same time, the main purpose of the shunt- APF is to absorb current harmonics, compensate for active power and reactive power injected by the load. Also, the voltage of the DC link capacitor is controlled to a desired value by the shunt-APF. The aim of the dissertation is to design different control strategies for (UPQC), which is one of the major custom power solutions capable of mitigating the effect of supply voltage sag, swell, flicker and spikes at the load end or at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC). It also prevents load current harmonics from entering the utility and corrects the input power factor of the load. Further, the main aim of the dissertation is to implement a control strategy for UPQC, modeling of UPQC using simulink and to analyze the control strategy to use the series voltage injection and shunt current injection for UPQC control The control strategies used here are based on PI controller, fuzzy controller. The relative performance of the two controls is also studied. The present work discusses the compensation principle and different control strategies (PI, Fuzzy) of the UPQC in detail [12]-[15]. The control strategies are modeled using MATLAB/Simulink. The performance of UPQC is examined by considering, a diode rectifier feeding an RL load (non linear load) that acts as a source of harmonics, to the system of concern. The performance is also observed by switching the extra RL load. The simulation results are listed in comparison of different control strategies and for the verification of result [16]-[18]. 1.5 Organization of the Report The report of the work done is organized as follows: Chapter 2 gives brief overview of control strategy of UPQC. In this chapter introduction to dq theory, compensation strategy, basic control function and modeling of UPQC using PI controller discussed with results. Chapter 3 discusses about fuzzy logic controller and implementation in UPQC. Membership functions, rule base table and surface viewer also discussed in this chapter. Chapter 4 gives comparison studied between fuzzy logic controller and PI controller. Simulation results of both are discussed in detail with the help of table and graphs. The last chapter 5 presents important conclusions and future work. Adequate references provided at the end of the chapter. Chapter 2 CONTROL STRATAGEY FOR UNIFIED POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER 2.1 Introduction Control strategy plays vital role in overall performance of power conditioner. Control strategy includes features like rapid detection of harmonic signals by maintaining higher accuracy, fast processing, and faster dynamic response of the controller. The control strategy can be realized using discrete analog and digital devices or advanced programmable devices, such as single chip micro computers, DSPs etc[10]. The control strategy determined by the appropriate switching pattern or signal obtained by compensating gate signal compared obtained by comparing with its reference value. Since derivation of reference signal plays an important role in control strategy, many theories and techniques were proposed in recent years. There are number of control strategies were proposed among them dq method is used in the present work and discussed below: 2.2 dq Transformation It is established that the active filter flows from leading voltage to lagging voltage and reactive power flows from higher voltage to lower voltage. Therefore both active and reactive power can be controlled by controlling the phase and the magnitude of the fundamental component of the converter voltage with respect to line voltage. dq theory provides an independent control of active reactive power by controlling phase and the magnitude of the fundamental component with respect to converter voltage According to the dq control theory three-phase line voltages and line currents are converted in to its equivalent two-phase system called stationary reference frame. These quantities further transformed into reference frame called synchronous reference frame. In synchronous reference frame, the components of current corresponding to active and reactive power are controlled in an independent manner. This three-phase dq transformation and dq to three-phase transformation are discussed in detail in this chapter. The outer loop controls the dc bus voltage and the inner loop controls the line currents. The instantaneous real power at any point on line can be defined by: p =vRIR + vBIb + vCIc (2.1) And we can define instantaneous reactive voltage conceptually as a part of three phase voltage set that could be eliminated at any instant without altering p. Reference frame theory based d-q model of shunt active filter is presented in this section. While dealing with instantaneous voltages and currents in three phase circuits mathematically, it is adequate to express their quantities as the instantaneous space vectors [10]. Vector representation of instantaneous three phase quantities R, Y and B which are displaced by an angle 2Ï€/3 from each other is shown in Fig.2.1 [17]. ÃŽ ² B 90o R ÃŽ ± 120o Y The instantaneous current and voltage space vectors are expressed in terms of instantaneous voltages and currents as: v= [vRvYvB] I = [IR IY IB] (2.2) Instantaneous voltages and currents on the RYB co ordinates can be transformed into the quadrature ÃŽ ±, ÃŽ ² coordinates by Clarke Transformation as follows: vÃŽ ±vÃŽ ²v0.=TvRvYvB. (2.3) IÃŽ ±IÃŽ ²I0.=TIRIYIB. (2.4) Where Transformation matrix T=2/31-1/2-1/203/2-3/21/21/21/2 (2.5) Since in a balanced three-phase three-wire system neutral current is zero, the zero sequence current does not exist and zero sequence current can also be eliminated using star delta transformer. These voltages in ÃŽ ±-ÃŽ ² reference frame can further be transformed into rotating d- q reference frame as Fig. 2.2. ÃŽ ² d Y R ÃŽ ± ω B q T1=cosωr-sinωrsinωrcosωr (2.7) Where ωr is the angular velocity of the d- q reference frame as shown in Fig. 2.2. The current components in the d- q reference frame can be similarly obtained using the ÃŽ ±-ÃŽ ² to d-q transformation matrix T1. The unit vector required for this transformation is generated using the grid voltage 2.3 Compensation Strategy vc iL ic VL vs As shown in Fig. 2.3,vs is the supply voltage. vc, Ic are the series compensation voltage, shunt compensation current and vL, iL are the load voltage and current respectively. The source voltage may contain negative, zero as well as harmonic components. The per phase voltage of the system can be expressed as: va=v1pm+sinωtsinÃŽ ¸+valn+k=2∞Vaksin kωt + ÃŽ ¸ka (2.8) Where v1pa is the fundamental frequency positive sequence components, v1naand v10a are negative and zero sequence components respectively. The last term of equation represents the harmonic content in the voltage. In order for the load voltage to be perfectly sinusoidal and balanced, the series filter should produce a voltage of: vah=v1an+v10a+ k=2∞vka sin kωt + ÃŽ ¸ka 2.9 In the latter section, it will be shown how the series-APF can be designed to operate as a controlled voltage source whose output voltage would be automatically controlled according to the above equation. The functions of the shunt active filter is to provide compensation of the load harmonic current, load reactive power demand and also to maintain dc link current constant. To provide load reactive power demand and compensation of the load harmonic and negative sequence currents, the shunt-APF acts as a controlled current source and its output components should include harmonic, reactive and negative-sequence components in order to compensate these quantities in the load current [6]. The per phase load current of shunt active filter is expressed as: Ial=I1pmcos ωt ÃŽ ¸1 + Taln+k=2∞Ialk (2.10) =I1pmcosωt cosÃŽ ¸1 + I1pmsin ωt sin ÃŽ ¸1 k=2∞Ialk (2.11) In order to compensate harmonic current and reactive power demand the shunt active filter should produce a current of: Iah=I1pm+sin ωt sin ÃŽ ¸1 +Ialn+k=2∞Iak (2.12) Then the harmonic, reactive and negative-sequence current will not flow into power source. Hence, the current from the source terminal will be: Ias=Ial-Iah=Ipmcos ωt ÃŽ ¸1 + Taln+k=2∞Ialk (2.13) This is a perfect harmonic free sinusoidal current in phase with voltage. 2.4 Basic Control Function It is evident from above discussion that UPQC should separate out the fundamental frequency positive sequence components first from the other components. Then it is required to control both series and shunt active filter to give output as shown in equations (2.9) and (2.18) respectively. The control strategy uses a PLL based unit vector template for extraction of reference signal from the distorted input supply. The block diagram of extraction of unit vector template is as given in Fig. 2.4. vm va,vb,vc vLa,vLb,vLc The input source voltage at point of common coupling contains fundamental and distorted component. To get unit vector templates of voltage, the input voltage is sensed and multiplied by gain equal to 1/vm, where vm is peak amplitude of fundamental input voltage. These unit vector templates are then passed through a PLL for synchronization of signals. The unit vector templates for different phases are obtained as follows: va=sin ωt vb=sin (ωt-1200) (2.14) vc=sin (ωt+1200) 2.5 Shunt Converter Control The unit vector template of voltage is used to generate the reference signal for shunt APF. The control block diagram of shunt active filter is given in Fig. 2.5. As indicated earlier, the shunt APF compensates current harmonics in addition to maintaining the dc link current at a constant level. To achieve this, dc link current of the UPQC is compared with a constant reference current of magnitude equal to peak of harmonic current [10.]. The error between measured dc link current and reference current is processed in a PI controller. Gatting Signals Ia Ib I vavbvc Iar Ibr Icr dc link Pdc Ploss Idc ref The output of PI controller is added to real power loss component to derive reference source current given as: vÃŽ ±vÃŽ ² = 1/2 -1/2-1/203/2 -3/2 vavbvc (2.15) IÃŽ ±IÃŽ ² =1/2 -1/2-1/203/2 -3/2IaIbIc (2.16) pt=vÃŽ ±tIÃŽ ±t+vÃŽ ²tIÃŽ ²t qt=-vÃŽ ²tIÃŽ ±t+vÃŽ ±tIÃŽ ²t (2.17) In matrix form it is given as: pq = vÃŽ ±vÃŽ ²-vÃŽ ²vÃŽ ± IÃŽ ±IÃŽ ² (2.18) From equation 2.18 the values of p and q can be expressed in terms of dc components plus the ac components as follows: p=p+p q=q+q (2.19) Where p is the dc component of the instantaneous power p, and is related to the fundamental active current. p is the ac component of the imaginary power p, and is related to the harmonic current caused by the ac component of the instantaneous real power q is the dc component of the imaginary instantaneous power q, and is related to the reactive power generated by the fundamental components of voltage and current qis the ac component of the instantaneous imaginary power q, and is related to the harmonic current caused by the ac component of instantaneous reactive power. To compute harmonic free unity power factor, three-phase currents, compensating powers pc and qc are selected as: pc = pldc + ploss (2.20) qc = 0 Where, plossis the instantaneous active power corresponding to the switching loss and resistive loss of UPQC. The total instantaneous active power is calculated by adding real power loss due to switching as shown in Fig.2.5. The orthogonal components of the fundamental current are obtained as follows: IÃŽ ±IÃŽ ² = vÃŽ ±vÃŽ ²-vÃŽ ²vÃŽ ± pcqc (2.21) The a-b-c components of fundamental reference current are obtained as follows: i*sai*sbi*sc =2/30-1/31/3-1/31/3IÃŽ ±IÃŽ ² (2.22) The reference currents are then; compared with actual source current in a hystresis controller band to derive the switching signals to shunt inverter. 2.6 Series Converter Control In order for the load voltage to be perfectly sinusoidal and balanced, the series filter should produce a voltage equal to equation (2.9). The reference load voltages are obtained by multiplying the unit vector templates with a constant equal to peak amplitude of fundamental input voltage. The compensation signals for series filter are thus obtained by comparing these reference load voltages with actual source voltage using equation (2.23). v*fa=vsa-vmva v*fa=vsb-vmvb v*fa=vsc-vmvc (2.23) The control of the series-active power filter is given in Fig. 2.6. The series-APF should behave as a controlled voltage source and its output should follow the pattern of voltage given in equation (2.9). This compensating voltage signal can be obtained by comparing the actual load terminal voltage with the desired value. These compensation signals are compared with actual signals at the terminals of series filter and the error is taken to hystresis controller to generate the required gating signal for series filter as shown in Fig. 2.6. vla v v*fa Gatting va signal v*fb vb v*fa vlb vfa vfb vfc Fig. 2.6 Control block diagram of series-APF 2.7 Modeling of UPQC The three-phase system shown in Fig. 2.7 is considered for verifying the performance of UPQC. Three-phase source feeding this system at one end. For the best performance, UPQC is placed at the midpoint of the system as shown in Fig. 2.7. UPQC is placed between two sections B1and B2 of the transmission line. The complete system parameters are given in Table 2.1. The STATCOM model in UPQC is connected in shunt with transmission line using step down transformer. the voltage can be regulated to improve the voltage stability of the power system. Thus the main function of the STATCOM is to regulate key bus voltage magnitude by dynamically absorbing or generating power to the ac transmission line. The SSSC which is connected by series transformer with transmission line generates three-phase voltage of controllable magnitude and phase angle. This voltage injection in series with the transmission line is almost in quadrature with the line current and hence emulates an equivalent inductive or capacitive reactance in series with the transmission line. A small part of this injected voltage is in phase with the transmission line current supplying the required losses in the Inverter Bridge and transformer. Three-phase AC source Rated voltage 11 kV Frequency 50 Hz SC level 200 MVA Base voltage 11 KV X/R 8 Transmission line parameters Resistance of the line 0.01273 ÃŽ ©/km

Water Pollution in America Essay examples -- Environmental Pollution Es

When you think of problems in the world today, water pollution isn’t one that would normally come up. In fact it is one of the worst problems in the world today. Water pollution, by definition, is the contamination of streams, lakes, underground water, bays, or oceans by any substances harmful to living things. All living things contain water and most need water to survive, so water pollution is a big problem. If severe, the pollution can kill off birds, fish, and any animals that use the water source. In some cases even killing an entire species.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Keeping the pollution to a minimal isn’t the easiest thing in the world to do. The major water pollutants are chemical, biological, or physical materials that degrade water quality. Pollutants can be classed in to eight categories, each of which presents its own set of hazards.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Petroleum products are one of the most toxic substances to the ecosystem. Oil and chemicals derived from oil get into the water mainly by means of accidental spills from ships, tanker trucks, pipelines, and leaky underground storage tanks. Many petroleum products are poisonous if ingested by animals, and spilled oil damages the feathers of birds or the fur of animals, often causing death.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Pesticides and herbicides are toxins that are used to kill of unwanted animals and plants. These may be collected by rainwater runoff and carried into steams, rivers, lakes, and e...

Children at work

This generation of parents have become more worried about what their children are watching and playing and because of this productiveness's The British Board of Film Classification (BBC) was established to give age ratings to movies. The board began fully operating in 1985 and since then they have rated thousands of movies.This wasn't a problem in the ass's as parents Just accompanied their children in the movies they couldn't watch alone but because of the growing amount of violence, sexual content and swearing in major motion pictures these days, parents are a lot more reluctant in coming with their children to those blockbuster flimsy they really wanted to watch. The main themes movies are rated with are: violence, sex, drugs, profanity, nudity, gambling or other types of mature content.However these themes are becoming more prevalent in movies these days and children learn about these things at a younger age so they should be comfortable with these topics. These age rating stop t he kids from coming to terms with these topics and it would be much better if they learnt about these things In a movie then through peer pressure and experience. Besides parents underestimate how much their children really know about these tauter topics and the amount of swearing In a mature movie Is about the same thing that you would hear in a high school.This Is why I believe age ratings are pointless and should be eradicated as they aren't really protected the children from anything just making them want to watch It more, as something becomes more desirable when its not allowed. The same applies to video games but Its a slightly different scenario as It costs only 10 pounds to watch a movie but about 40 pounds to buy a video game.

Psychology Theories Sigmund Freud essays

Psychology Theories Sigmund Freud essays Psychology Theories Sigmund Freud is one of the most famous psychologists to ever hit the study of psychology. His name alone symbolizes the importance of his theories, and the name that comes to most people's heads when saying the word psychology is Sigmund Freud. Freud was a psychodynamic psychologist and came from the conservative point of view which states that man is bad and society is good, which I do not agree with 100% because not all man's actions are necessarily bad and with bad intentions. Freud was a real pessimist when it came to human nature. He identifies man's weaknesses in saying that man is a biological creature with biological drives. He reflected these ideas off of Darwin's original ideas. I do agree with this theory because man's drives are survival and self-preservation. Freud also stated that mankind's aggression helps him to survive, he says that man has an innate sense of survival. I also agree with this theory because aggression and dominance guarantees our survival. He also believed that over the many thousands of years that man has been alive man developed rational thought. Freud stated that people do not have to live like animals because overtime we developed a society that has rules and regulations in order to keep our animal nature in check. I agree with Freud on this because of many cases when a person has some bad intentions in mind but let's them go when they know the consequences. Another thing Freud said was the idea of Opposing Instincts which when comes to mind creates conflict. The first of the two opposing instincts is the Eros, which is the life instinct, which also ensures the organisms life. The ID presses us to survive and pushes us to produce. The Eros seeks pleasure and then we rationalize it. Next comes the Thanatos, which is the death instinct, and this instinct says that all organisms have a death wish towards themselves and I agree completely. This he says becomes our own destruction. ...

Barton Corbin Case

Barton Corbin Case On Dec. 4, 2004 Jennifer Corbin was found shot once in the head in her Buford, Georgia home with a handgun beside her. Her 7-year-old son discovered her body and reportedly told police that his dad, Dr. Barton Corbin, had killed his mom. While authorities were investigating the death of Jennifer Corbin in Gwinnett County, a Richmond County grand jury on Dec. 22 indicted Barton Corbin for the 1990 death of Dorothy (Dolly) Hearn, who was Bartons girlfriend in dental school in Augusta. Hearn was found shot to death in her apartment with a gun in her lap. Latest Developments Georgia Dentist Pleads Guilty to Two Murders Previous Developments Judge Allows 1990 Evidence in Gwinnett Trial Hearing Set in Georgia Dentists CaseDec. 20, 2005Attorneys for a Georgia dentist, who is accused of killing is wife in 2004 and his girlfriend in 1990, will argue that jurors in one trial should not hear about charges his faces in another in a hearing set for Feb. 17. Attorneys for Georgia Dentist Fight Murder ChargesOct. 10, 2005Attorneys for Barton Corbin, the Georgia dentist accused of the murder of his wife in December and his former girlfriend 15 years ago, have asked that the charged be dropped in the 1990 case because they said the state waited too long to indict him for the death of Dorothy (Dolly) Hearn. Corbin Pleads Innocent in Wifes DeathJan 27, 2005Barton Corbin entered a not guilty plea in his wifes death, after waiving his right to an arraignment. Georgia Dentist Investigated in Third DeathDec. 7, 2005Dr. Barton Corbin, who has been indicted by two Georgia grand juries in the connection with the Dec. 4 death of his wife and death of his former girlfriend 14 years ago, is now being investigated in connection with the death of a Georgia woman who disappeared in 1996 and was found a year later in her vehicle at the bottom of an Alabama Lake. Barton Indicted for Wifes MurderJan. 5, 2005A Gwinnett County grand jury has indicted Georgia dentist Barton Corbin for murder in the shooting death of his wife Jennifer Corbin, who was found dead in her bedroom with a handgun by her side. Investigators Await Gunshot TestsDec. 28, 2004Prosecutors are waiting for crime lab tests in connection with the shooting death of Jennifer Corbin. The Georgia Bureau of Investigation is performing gunshot residue tests on both Jennifer Corbin and her husband, dentist Barton Corbin. Corbin Indicted in Former Girlfriends DeathDec. 22, 2004The husband of a woman who was found shot in her home two weeks ago has now been indicted for the death of his former girlfriend who was found under similar suspicious circumstances 14 years ago.

The Measles, Mumps and Rubella Vaccine Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Measles, Mumps and Rubella Vaccine - Essay Example The criticism is based on the possible side effects associated with the use of the vaccine The medical fraternity is in favor of the use of the MMR vaccine but the general public has been conducting Anti-MMR campaigns in order to prevent its use. The reason for the criticism from the general public is the fear that exists among parents over the side effects of the vaccine on their children. Parents fear that the MMR vaccine may be the primary cause of autism among children (Newton, 2013, p. 90) Autism is a mental condition that usually affects individuals from childhood and causes difficulty in communicating and establishing bonds with other people. It also causes slurred speech because using language and abstract expressions becomes difficult. The medical world has not been able to provide an appropriate account on the emerging issues concerning the vaccine. In 2002, Medical Research Council did a review of autism. This review covers matters on the prevalence of autism, its effects, and possible causative factors. The review finally associates a number of factors with the cause of autism but singles out genetic factors as a major cause. According to the report, there is no tangible evidence that can establish MMR vaccine as a causative agent of autism. The report further links autism with environmental and behavioral factors like the exposure to drugs or heavy metals before giving birth. Such an exposure causes genetic susceptibility to autism (Hollins, 2015, p. 1). Evaluation of the controversies has also remained accomplished by independent federal committees such as the Joint Committee on Vaccines and Immunization. The reports from these committees suggest that the argument that autism is related to MMR vaccine has no scientific basis. Therefore, the committees’ conclusion is that there is no causal link between autism and the MMR vaccine.

US Domestic Direct Investment in 2014 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

US Domestic Direct Investment in 2014 - Essay Example There is ease to which goods and services across the United States national borders. This has made the United States embrace globalization since it is essential for all the economies that rely on data. These flows have been facilitated policies that govern taxation, migration, trade and those that regulate. But the United States would be at the losing end if they did not practice the investment in the local country. There is a need for investment at home so as to be successful in the global market as a full partner. The direct domestic investments include the networks of digital communication, infrastructure, education, and research. The additional investment regions are content, security, production of energy and product development. Domestic investments increase productivity, new jobs, higher incomes and more chances that ensure economic mobility. Direct domestic investment is therefore important so as we get the economic growth that we desire. The year 2014 was characterized by a major portion of investment being experienced from the private companies. The gross direct domestic investment in the first quarter of 2014 was estimated to be about $ 2.952 trillion. This is an improvement from the previous quarter that had a gross of $ 2.905 trillion. This is also a great improvement from the $2.745 trillion in the previous year. This data shows that there has been a steady increase in the direct domestic investment in America as per the year 2014. This is characterized by changes of 1.62%.